-          Son Del Batey played in the Egipto nightclub in San Juan in 1999 which was a rejuvenation of the historical dance and music form of Bomba.  This, after over 300 years of relative obscurity, was the beginning of bomba dancing within the mainstream dancing public.  This was a recognition of the African influence and history within Puerto Rico.

-          Crowding the drummers is common at Rumba parties (rumbones) and is not considered rude, however the lead drummer (the primo or subidor) must maintain a clear line of vision with the solo dancers who provide a spontaneous musical text which must be interpreted by the drummer.

Flores, Juan. (2004) Puerto Rican Music and Dance: RicanStructing Roots/Routes Part II. Centro Journal, 16 (2): 4-6.

Lannert, John. (1999). Viva Puerto Rico. Billboard, 111(8): 4+.

- Puerto Rico is said to provide about 15% to 20% of overall sales in the U.S. Latino music arena.  It is a a vibrant, self-contained record market because of its well-developed infrastructure geared toward a youth-driven audience that is craving new sounds.

- Puerto Rico has a deep pool of indigenous musical talent, but the island has also become home for many prominent songwriters not born on the island. Omar Alfanno, Luis Angel and Gustavo Marquez have made the island their home. And the musicians in Puerto Rico are said to be among the very best, in pop, salsa or merengue.

- Historically, the island has been the sales front for tropical music. Large-selling pop albums by Martin, Tanon and Sony Discos pop/rocker Shakira tilted the balance toward pop versus tropical music.

- Puerto Rico is the only market in the U.S. Hispanic sector where Latino retailers dominate the marketplace.

I was also trying to find more information about the history and appropriateness of attire within the Puerto Rican music/dance community.  I was not very successful.

The nice thing about Puerto Rican music is that there seems to be a type or genre to fit every occasion.  When referring to the types of music (dana, plena, and bomba, and salsa – romantica and hard), the idea is for performance, dancing, socialization, entertainment, expression, improvisation, and narration.

Puerto Rican music is a piece of culture and is displayed within festivals, celebrations, and social gatherings, as well as in nightclubs and parties.  Fania Records was a large main point in the salsa revival of the 1970′s.  RMM and TH-Rodven were large on the scene in the 1980′s production.  A few very notable Puerto Rican musicians include: Rafael Hernandez, Pedro Padilla, Raminto, Ceasar Cacopcion, Bobby Capo, Daniel Santos, Bobby Valentin, Rafael Cortijo, the group Plenealo and the Los Pleneros del Truko.  Many musicians traveled between the United States (New York and Miami) and Puerto Rico.

There is a large Latin American subculture within the United States that prescribe to Puerto Rican music.  Canada, the Caribbean, Cuba, England, and Japan all have an audience for Puerto Rican music as well.  In general, the roles within the music industry and within Puerto Rican music exposure are professional producers, recordings, advertisers, singers, dancers, and musicians.

Merengue, chacha, and a variety of salsa dances are heavily associated with music of Puerto Rico. Any Latin or salsa music allows for an instant foot tapping motion, clapping, swaying, and most notable, hip swaying.  In many dances the male and female dancers do not touch however there are some romantic style dances that give way to very suggestive and erotic dance moves.  Some of these have the woman portraying “no” and others portraying “yes” to the advances of the man.  One very popular use of Puerto Rican music is within Saint’s Day celebrations every July.  It is here that you can see the ritual of all night dancing accompanied by large and small salsa bands on the island.

The instruments being used to make the songs include a tambourine (pandereta), congas, bongos, guiro(scraper), guitar, and a cuatro (little, 4-stringed guitar).  Other pieces that are so heavily connected with the making of the music are the costumes of the dancers.  The traditional skirts and blouses, head coverings, men’s cumberbuns and boots, etc. give added color to the music.  The appropriate attire would be determined by where the musical event was held, be it nightclub, celebration, Latin American gathering, etc.

There are 4 layers in the song which include, the lead singer, chorus, drums, and maracas. The drums keep the tempo of the song moving quickly, and the maracas keep the pulse of the song. The drums are the fastest layer and the lead singer quickly follows, while the maracas are steady but are keeping up with the fast chorus. After seeing the video, I see white in every layer. Especially in the drumming, it’s so fast, similar to what people call “white lighting”. There is a call and response between the lead singer and the chorus. There is also a minor call and response between the drummer and the lead singer.

Triple beat meter with no pause in between the time signature. The tempo is very VERY fast. The swing is slight during the choruses prolong portion of the chant. The syncopation is consistent throughout the song, the pattern just goes right back into itself.

The harmonic character stays in the figure eight pattern, it’s almost an invisible blend. The maracas and the drums stay consistent in loudness, but the chorus and the lead singer have a few short areas where the dynamics in their voice increase in loudness. The articulation in the lyrics are very clear, as are the beats of the drum. Again the overall color of the song is white. It reminds me of white lighting, not only because the people are wearing white and moving quickly but also because of the bright sound of the music and quick movement of the tune.

As far as the dancing goes in relation to African influences, the hands on the hips and the shaking hips goes back to African community dancing.  Another aspect of the dancing that reminds me of Africa is when the everyone goes down and up, like a wave of their bodies.  The chosen costumes of the dancers are white and the women are wearing head coverings, both of which are typically seen on African women.  On the other hand, the music has a strong drumming component that also relates to African drumming.  The use of only simple percussion instruments is another connection.  The call and response, as well as the chanting of the chorus, are yet more examples of African influence within this Puerto Rican song.

I hear 5 layers t this song: lead singer, chorus, maracas, guitar, drums.  The drum keeps the beat, almost the backbone of the song.  The guitar adds a Spanish touch with discordance pulse.  The drums have an African influence within in their style, and the instrumentation, with long solos, also reminds me of African music.  The drumming solo that introduces the song is still another way the drums connect with African music. The maracas keep a connection, almost filling in “empty space” for a smooth sound between the guitar and drums.  The drums stay within the same pace throughout the song, while the guitar changes its speed, alway fast, sometimes faster.  The guitar stands out within the song.  The maracas are also have a fast pace, but are consistent throughout the song.  The maracas are consistent with African shakers as well.  The timbres of the layers are bright in color and sound; although the words are foreign to me the paired dancers and tune of the song remind me of a couples song.  The chorus seems to share a call and response with the lead singer even though I do not understand what they are saying.  I do not think there is any call and response within the instrumentation.

The harmony has the guitar as a front instrument, but the drum is what you hear first which you hear throughout the song as the ever-present, steadying effect of the music.  However the maracas have the harmony of the music that keeps the drum and guitar from harshly clashing.  The guitar and the lead singer stand as forefront players within the song.  Their dynamics change loudness throughout, but are always louder than the other pieces of the music.  The drums and chorus, and maracas too, are softer in loudness, more subtle.  The chorus has a certain repetitive chanting that reminds the listener of African roots within the music.  The articulation of the song is very clear in both vocalists and instrumentation. The timbre of the song, in general, is red to me…bright and vibrant.  The dancers were wearing red and it stuck with me, which is further associated with the red (i.e. love) of the couples and the couples song.

The meter of this Puerto Rican song is a little confusing because it seems as the drum is a quadruple beat while the inclusion of all the parts seems to be a triple beat.  This may give the discordance of the song, but also the richness of its combinations.  The tempo of this song is fast in instrumentation and singers; every few seconds the pattern repeats itself. When the lead vocalist and the guitar that introduce swing into the song.  The drum and maracas have a syncopation of a repeating pattern.  The motives behind the timing of the song give the song a quick dance beat and a rhythm for paired dancing.  The dancing in pace and the jumping of the dancers within the video remind me of African dance moves.

The lead vocalist is in the tenor range, while I think the chorus basically stays in the baritone range.  The phrasing of both lead and chorus singers are fast with many notes sung within one breath. The contour of most of the song is very circular, but there are points that veer off slightly only to return to the circle.  Once again this circular contour supports the dancing motives behind the music.  It really gives way to the circular hip motions of the dancers.

Though I cannot hear much of a pitch there is a pattern in the song that repeats.  The melody is smooth but short so the pattern finishes and starts again quickly.  The contour of the song is repetitive, small circle.  Since the song is labeled as ”traditional music of Santeria,” the listener can assume that it relates to the Santeria religion, and would be used in religious ceremonies.  Therefore, the character of the melody is simple so that anyone can recognize and follow it.  This also leaves it open as a platform to sing improvisational lyrics.  The range of the melody maintains an alto to tenor sound.  The phrasing of this traditional piece is 3 drummed  notes to a breath, I think. 

The texture of this piece is smooth and flowing.  There are either 2 drums used in this piece or one drum and one stick (used against the side of the drum).  There are 3 layers; I think there is a lead drum, a secondary percussion instrument and a shaker.  The lead drum functions to carry the song while the shaker keeps the pulse of the song.  The shaker is slower and steady while the ”lead” drum is faster.  It is very difficult to pull the 2 drums apart in order to determine their so-called speed.  There is an instrumental call and response where the 2 drums call and respond to each other – I believe they are the typical drums of Cuba that are the same kind of drum, but toned differently. The sound of this song reminds me a little of the beach dock with the rolling waves, the driftwood hitting the rocks or dock, and the sand shaking beneath my feet.

This song has a triple beat meter.  The only rhythm I hear is the drums.  The shaker does not make enough of an impression on me to be influential.  The tempo of the song repeats itself quickly, as well as the song’s overall tempo makes a slight, slow, gradual increase until about 3/4 of the way through when it gradually slows. There really isn’t much swing to this song since it is so repetitive.  There is no changing in it so there really isn’t much action either.  It is a good example of a syncopated song.

One note comes in right after the previous one. There isn’t a tell-tale harmony in this song since the 2 “drums” call and respond to one another, but with a slight discord.  If there is, this is not a typical harmonic song.  The only change in dynamics is for a short moment in the beginning and another short moments at the end when there is a softness; through the remaining song the loudness does not change.  The articulation in this song has very clear instruments, but it is difficult to separate them because the notes are played so close together.  I feel that this song carries a sense of organic, earthy qualities because it is so repetitive like a cycle, i.e. the earth’s cycle or the rolling waves.  With this image in my mind I kept thinking of driftwood which doesn’t give the song a specific color, but a sense of timbre.

Cuban Musical Culture as it relates to the song Traditional Music of Santeria

Since the song is labeled as traditional music of Santeria, it is easy to assume that there is a spirituality since it would be used in religious ceremonies or gatherings.  This song could be used in street ceremonies as well as more formal church services.   Because this song is very repetitive, I feel like it would keep a group of people together, moving at the same pace and direction, but at the same time since there are no vocals it would allow people to participate and call out to praise and call to their orishas.  The song is so simple and repetitive, it is uniform.  The function of the music is to bring order to a religious ceremony to make sections of the song available to participants who want to chime in and or dance to that portion (which is also relating to a specific orisha or saint).

The term professional varies n this context, because you do not have to be professional to play within the religious arena. The music would not necessarily be recorded or produced, nor would is really make money, however there would be a standard for experience.  The audience members would have subsidiary roles in the music, as they would advertise by word of mouth and repeat the songs played within other areas of their life (for example, at home, with their children, singing to get work done, etc.). 

Dances that accompany Santeria music are spontaneous movements as the dancer feels necessary in order to express themselves.  Also since this is traditional music with a religious background, it would have a more formal,appropriate context.  It would be individualized and improvisational.  The etiquette would have to be religiously accepted and based.

Gonzalez, Fernando. Players: Cha-Cha-Cha with the Times.  Down Beat – Jazz, Blues & Beyond,69:12 December 2002, p. 50-51.

Rumba -  (Ideas – Appropriateness)

Rumba developed in the in the late 1800′s in Cuba as an energetic Afro-Cuban dance.  Rumba was considered lewd, dangerous, and inappropriate and was often suppressed and restricted.

Guaracha – (Ideas – appropriateness)

Guarcha has  a rapid tempo and with lyrics. It originated in a Bufo comic theater in the late 1800′s.  In the early 1900′s it was commonly heard in the brothels of Havana. The songs used slang and discussed within the lyrics politics and people and events popular in the news of the times.

Afro-Cuban Music in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Vol. 3, Ed. by Ellen Koskoff (Routledge, 2000). 1390pp.

Santería (Activities – Rituals)

A ritual religious music that involves song, drumming, and dancing.  This type of music acts as a “doorway” to religious deities (orishas) so they can be praised and “invoked through the phenomenon of possession trance.”

Bembé (Material Culture – Instruments used)

Bembe’ consists of an ensemble of an iron bell (or guataca – hoe blade), which is said to provide a timeline within the music; one to three gourds (“known as güiros or shekeres“), which give rhythmic support to a song; and one to three conga drums, which function to support or lead the other instruments and the song.

Jazz (Social Organization – Who plays and listens to the music)

Cuban influence on Jazz in New Orleans can be clearly traced back to the 1880s, when the habanera first became popular.

Traceable elements within Jazz go back to Afro-Cuban flutist Alberto Socarras in the 1920′s and Machito and his Afro-Cubans. ” Machito’s orchestra, which was formed in 1940, combined traditional Cuban elements with jazz.” The rhythm section of this band consisted of the piano, bass, bongo, and timbale (played by the young Tito Puente).

The audience of Afro-Cuban jazz grew in 1946 when Dizzy Gillespie, worked briefly with a Cuban drummer, rumbero.

Charanga (Material Culture – Instruments used)

Charanga goes back to the 1800′s in the Cuban form danzón.  The instrumentation of the charanga francesa was made up of wooden flute, strings, double bass, timbales, and güiro. Later, the strings were often replaced by brass, but the original, general combination remains similar today (with the addition of a vocalist, cowbell, and conga drum).

Cuba in Garland Encyclopedia of World Music Volume 2: South America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, Ed. by Dale A. Olson and Daniel E. Sheehy (Routledge, 1998). 1082pp

(Ideas – spirituality, rituals)

African traditions were allowed to continue in Cuba because the Spanish masters allowed slaves to keep their traditions of drumming and dance to worship as they did in Africa.  The allowance of a society of sorts for the African slaves often had a king, a queen, and a complex social hierarchy.  This relative leniency, combined with compulsory baptism into Roman Catholicism, resulted in the combination of West African deities with Christian saints. Other names for this religion are Regla de Ochá (Doctrine of the deity Ochá) and Lucumí.

The music prior to the late 1950′s, was one that filled the lives of Cubans at home and within nightclubs and big orchestras.  After Castro’s induction, the music business changed dramatically to one owned , regulated, and restrained, by the government.  Recording, touring and having employment as a musician was extremely difficult.  Music and musicians were limited until the late 1990′s.  It has only been in the last few years, that music from Cuba has again been recorded and heard world-wide.

Training would have come from taking professional classes and job focused musical employment.  But at the same time, since music was such a cultural and religious necessity, there would be many informal singers, dancers, and musicians to help maintain the music community.  One important factor, specific to Cuba, would be the limited recordings and musicians of the times during Castro.  During this time, training for music would have been extremely hard to come by in a formal setting, but was offered to those promising musicians a Conservatoire training.

Local people and other Cuban artists would be prominent audiences.  The religious activities dictate audience participation therefore, church-goers would be audiences and performers.  Cuban music is centered in Cuba, whether by choice or by dictatorship from Castro, but there is a comfort for Cuban musicians to play with Cuban musicians because they are playing for the same reasons.

Everyone has subsidiary roles in the music production since it is played for religious, community and social purposes.  The audience is full of active participants who sing and chant and dance to the music.  These subsidiary roles would have been even more important during Cuba’s boycott/Castro years.

Some dance forms that accompany rumba and cuban music include the Guaguanco’, the yambu’, and the Columbia dances which originated within the rumba dance music.  The danzon, the charanga, and the chachacha are still other dances associated with cuban music.  .

what kinds of other movements go with the movement? The guaguanco dance is a sexual display, while the yambu is more formal.  the columbia consists of acrobatic movements.

Depending on the context of the song, the appropriate attire and rituals  would change.  Some songs are directed toward a couple, while others are viewed as entertainment only, and still others are conveying a message.  Within Cuba, part of the rituals and attire would also depend on the event or location of the music, i.e. a church verses an outdoor event.

There is a strong connection with the actual instruments to the Cuban musical culture.  The chekere (rattles), congas, and bata drums are specific to Cuban music and important in the layout of songs.  Instrumentation still has strong roots in the African history of Cuba.

The concert has always been a form of music exposure to a large group of people.  In this lives, the stage, the instruments, the electronics (possibly), the bleachers/chairs and arena setup.  The nightclub is another way to materially access music while still being social.  In that there would be a dance floor, drinks, and bar included.  Music touring which includes, interviews, modes of transportation, equipment, storage, and a host of props, are also associated strongly with music.

The song begins with a short introductory instrumentation and then the lead singer begins singing meaningless syllables (‘dianas).  After that the song becomes more full with complete instrumentation and vocals, including a chorus.  The character of the melody is hard for me to decipher because the words are in Spanish and I am unfamiliar with rumba music, but the song sounds like it is on an important topic.  It may not sound happy, but the meaning behind it could be important.  The song’s contour is that of a cone, i.e. a gradual beginning and softness pushing to a more relative loudness and quicker speed.

I think I hear 6 layers, one is the lead vocalist, the chorus, 2 Congo drums which are played in different tunes,  the shakers, and block/knocking sound (which I found out to be 2 sticks hitting the side of the drum).  The 2 Congo drums are typical of traditional Rumba music. They function together as the forefront instrumentation and they have a slight call and response with the deeper tuned drum calling to the higher tuned drum, however it seems  like the drums are competing since they do not seem to wait for one another before moving on.  This gives the song a feeling of restlessness and increased pace. The shaker and block seem to keep the pulse of the song.

The meter of the song is a very fast 1-2 (duple meter).  The phrasing of the song has the lead vocalist putting a lot of words into one breath and only extending his words for a specific ending emphasis.  The chorus increases their speed towards the end of the song, also repeating their line of  lyrics in one breath. The shaker and block have a more consistent rhythm in their layers, while the Congo drums increase in rhythm further supporting the lead vocalist and chorus.  The chorus is a rhythmic pattern that keeps repeating and so is the interval between the higher tuned and lower tuned drums.

There is a disconcerting harmony between the instruments and the lead singer which allows the listener to really hear the vocals while he is singing.  The articulation of the vocalists is clear and the music does not interfere with their words.  The instruments also articulate their notes well.  The song sounds like it is all over the place with the lead singer changing dynamics becoming gradually louder until the end.  He also raises the pitch of his voice, while the chorus has a more consistent chanting part in the song. The lead singer maintains a tenor range and the chorus maintained a baritone range.

This rumba song connects to African music because it begins with an instrumentation solo and then a diana (almost a calling of people together).  There is a sense of community and call and response from the lead singer to the chorus which could represent “the people.”  There are also short stints of solo instrumentation within the song, similar to how African musicians perform solos within a song to show their ability.  The loud “calling” of the lead singer and his meaningless sounds, reminds me of African music because it is so commonly used in an introduction of the singer.  The loud drumming and use of only “basic” instruments also maintains a feel for Africa.

The character of Bob Marley’s song “Redemption” has a spirituality to it, maybe not religious, but a certain connection to the words.  The range varies throughout the song, but stays mainly tenor with an increase to “almost” alto during the enunciation of his elongated words.

The dynamics of the song stay relatively low and soft, with a few slightly louder portions like when he sings “ever had.”  The layers of the song are very straightforward…the acoustic guitar and Bob Marley.  The guitar gives the pulse and rhythm of the song and interestingly has an almost off beat to it, while Bob Marley’s voice gives the articulation, swing, and timbre of the harmony.  Both the speed of Bob Marley’s voice and the guitar are in sync and complement one another with a smooth harmony.  The timbre of voice layer is deep and rich, while the guitar layer is muddy brown because it reminds me that redemption is usually coming back from something “dirty”.  I wouldn’t consider anything in this song to be a typical call and response.

There is a very slow 1-2 beat to the song.  The rhythm is an elongated one-two.  The tempo of Redemption is regulated by the 1-2 beat, which is slow and steady.  I guess this is because there are only 2 layers in the song.  Bob Marley’s voice gives the swing to the music when he raises his volume, as well as when he elongates certain words.  The syncopation of the song is consistent whenever Bob Marley is singing, but during the solo sections of the guitar, it is more unique. The solo sections of the guitar playing also remind me of the African music because there is such a concentration on the instruments.  The articulation of the guitar is clear and crisp.  The articulation of Bob Marley’s voice is well-formed, but slightly garbled to me because of his accent.

With the large variety of music from Jamaica (folk music, mento, sound systems, ska, DJ and toasting music, rocksteady music, reggae, dub, dancehall, and ragga, reggae fusion, Rastafarian music, and religious music), there is a wide variety of audiences, although often reggae and Bob Marley is the most prominently associated with Jamaican music.  It is interesting that the small country of Jamaica has so strongly influenced American, UK and European music. Indirectly is has also influenced the Asian countries because they enjoy so much American music which has already been touched by Jamaica.

It seems that Jamaica is a country that rests on its roots in incorporating music into their daily lives, but also incorporating an ever-changing tend into how the music is shaped.  For a small island, country the plethora of music producers and professions is surprising.

Some additional activities that have come to light with my research include break dancing, rapping socialization, rapping competition, all of which pulls in additional varieties of audiences.  Remixing, computer instrumentation, as well as alternative items used to make the music have also progressed.

For example, the etiquette that goes along with Bob Marley songs are very similar to songs written and played by the band Sublime.  There is a relaxing, dreamy factor about that music, and there is an understatement of marijuana use.